更新时间:2023-09-07 11:55
由于地球的球形表面,造成太阳辐射对地表的增温差异,辐射强的地方快,形成上升气流,构成低压区,地表附近的空气向这里运动,以补充这里上升的空气。 在高空,上升的空气向外移动,至较冷的地方下沉,形成高压区,从而构成了大气循环。如“能量转换”一节所述,由于科里奥利力作用造成大气运动过程中方向不断偏转,从赤道到极地形成三个行星风系和三个大的经向环流。除此而外,也是由于热力造成的气压差异,在更小的时空尺度下还可以形成海陆间的季节性环流,山谷间、城乡间昼夜性局部环流。
局地环流
重新分配水热
直接作用:输送大气环流中的热能和水汽
间接作用:驱动大规模的洋流运动
搬运松散固体物质,改造地貌:侵蚀与堆积
物种传播
纬度环流亦称行星风系或气压带风带,地球上的风带和喘流由三个对流环流(三圈环流)所推动:哈德里环流(低纬度)、费雷尔环流(中纬度)以及极地环流。有时候同一种环流(譬如低纬度)可以在同一纬度(如赤道)有数个同时存在,随机地随时间移动、互相合并与分裂。为了简单起见,同一种环流通常当作一个环流处理。
低纬度环流我们对低纬度环流运作的了解比较清楚。由乔治‧哈得莱(George Hadley 1685-1768)所记述的大气环流模式,用以解释贸易风(信风)的形成,与观测到的非常符合。这是一个封闭的环流,由温暖潮湿空气从赤道低压地区上升开始,升至对流层顶,向极地方向迈进。直到南北纬30度左右,这些空气在高压地区下沉。部分空气返回地面后于地面向赤道返回,形成信风,完成低纬度环流。
低纬度环流基本活动于热带地区,在太阳直射点引导下,以半年周期往返南北。
极地环流也同样是一个简单的系统。虽然相比赤道的空气,这里的空气比较寒冷干燥,但仍然有足够热力和水分进行对流,完成热循环。本环流的活动范围限于对流层内,最高也只到对流层顶(8公里)。往极地的气流主要集中在空中,而赤道方向的气流主要集中在地面。当空气到达极地范围,它的温度已经大大降低,在这高压干燥寒冷的地区下沉,受地转偏向力影响向西偏转,形成极地东风。极地环流的流出,形成呈简谐波形的罗斯贝波。这些超长波在影响于中纬度环流与对流层顶间喘流的流向,扮演重要的角色。极地环流如散热器般,平衡低纬度环流地区的热盈余,使整个地球热量收支平衡。
可以说,在中高纬度地区,极地环流是影响这里气象的主要成因。虽然加拿大和欧洲在夏季会间中遇到暴风雨,在冬天从西伯利亚高压区所带来的寒冷才能感受到真正的严寒。实际上,就是因为极地高压区的气流,导致南极东方考察站在1983年录得地球有纪录以来最低气温:摄氏零下89.2度。
低纬度环流与极地环流有着同一特点:两者都是由于地表的温度而出现,直接与热能相关。与此同时,其热能特点盖过其所产生的天气现象。低纬度环流大量传送的热能,和极地环流巨形的吸热能力,使除了特殊情况下,短暂气象的效果不能被系统接收,也不能产生。在纬度30度至60度以外地区,根本不能感受到中纬度气压中心无休止地每天由低转高再转低的情况。
这两个环流颇为稳定,虽然不时增强减弱,但是并不会完全消失。
中纬度环流由威廉‧费雷尔(William Ferrel 1817-1891)所提出的中纬度环流是一个次要的环流,依靠其余两个环流而出现。如一处于两者之间的走珠轴承,因处于中纬度的涡旋(eddy)循环(高压及低压区)而出现。故本区时而又称为“混合区”。在南面处于低纬度环流之上,在北面又漂浮在极地环流上。信风可以在低纬度环流以下找到,相同地西风带也可以在中纬度环流下找到。
与低纬度环流和极地环流不同,中纬度环流并不是真正闭合的循环,而重点却在西风带上。不像信风和极地东风那样,有所属的环流捍卫着它们在该区的主导地位。盛行西风没有这样幸运,常常听命于经过的气象系统。在上空通常由西风主导,但是在地表风向可以随时突然改变。以北半球的参考系(观点)而言,往北的低气压或是往南的高气压往往维持甚至加速西风的流速;但是经过当地的冷锋可能扭转这种情况。而往北的高气压带来东风主导的气流,常常持续数天。
气团移动是中纬度环流底层特色之一。喘流吸收由地表低压区上升的空气,它所处的地方是影响气团位置的原因之一(在天气图上可以见到地表低压区是随喘流移动的)。地表风整体的流向是从纬线30度至60度的。可是中纬度环流上空的流向尚未能完全界定,一方面因为环流本身处于极地环流与低纬度环流之间,没有一个强烈的热源或冷源推动对流,而另一方面地表涡漩也对上空环境造成不稳定影响。
Heavy rainfall, storm surges and strong winds brought about by tropical cyclones are an acute natural disaster which will result in severe damages of loss of lives and properties. Accurate forecasts and warnings on tropical cyclone activities are one of the major responsibilities for tropical cyclone forecasters and researchers. Tropical cyclone has been studied systematically in China in this half century including various topics of tropical cyclone motion and its forecasting techniques, formation and extratropical transition, structure and intensity change, tropical cyclone landfalling and abrupt change in this stage, sustaining and decaying over land, rain/wind distribution etc. The research achievements from Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences (CAMS) in this half century are reviewed for her 50 year anniversary. Other research works related to CAMS could be raised but it is not a comprehensive summary at all. The research methodology and technical strategy with CAMS are advanced in different era. Mathematical physical statistics, mechanism analysis with synoptic dynamical theory, numerical simulation, physical diagnostics and field experiment programs etc. are employed in the research programs and play an critical role to advance the tropical cyclone researches in the nation. Another characteristic of the research in CAMS is to integrate the theory with practice, to integrate the research with operational needs, to transfer the research achievements to operational forecast. One of the scientific objectives for CAMS is to raise the operational capacity of tropical cyclone forecasting. Several decades ago, scientists treated tropical cyclone as a particle without volume because people don't know much about the detail structure of it due to lack of data in the vicinity of storms. Motion forecast depends on the environmental steering derived from one layer barotropic model. Now motion forecast can be done by the high resolution global spectral model with data assimilation and bogussing tropical cyclone in CAMS. This technical variation cost 50 years or so. This also reflects the progress and advances of remotely sensed techniques and computer capacity in this time span. A serial field programs carried out by CAMS in the past 2 decades are helpful for the research programs on the sudden change in motion, intensity and rainfall of coastal typhoons and landfalling tropical cyclone studies. Relevant research achievements would be transferred to operational communities. Scientific cooperation and coordination especially the international cooperation are needed for the tropical cyclone research in CAMS. The technical cooperation between CAMS and operational centers are more important and beneficial for both sides. Some of the achievements are the common results of the cooperation, which should be explored and developed in the future research programs.